Syllabus of Lectures on Biology

1. Introduction to biology. General characteristics of biological systems. Essential attributes of life. Hierarchy and classification of living systems. Non-cellular and cellular forms of life. Biology and genetics of viruses. Reproduction of viruses. Viroids. Virusoids. Prions.

2. Cell theory and its history. Classification of cellular organisms: prokaryots and eukaryots. Domains of living cellular systems: bacteria, archea, eukaryots. Characteristics of prokaryotic cells. Comparison of plant and animal cells. Extracellular matrix. Intercellular junctions.

3. Chemical composition of cells. Essential and traces elements, inorganic compounds, organic compounds, biopolymers. Lipids. Carbohydrates. Proteins. Structure and function of proteins. Protein domains. Chaperons, proteosom. Nucleic acids (DNA, RNA – types).

4. Membrane principle of cells. Structure, location and function of biomembranes. Plasma membrane. Endomembranes. Transport across membranes (active and passive transport; membrane transport proteins and their functions; natrium-potassium pump; ion channels). Endocytosis and exocytosis.

5. Cytoskeleton. Microtubules. Intermediary filaments. Microfilaments (actin fibers). Functio of cytoskeleton. Cell movement (flagella, cilia, molecular motors, muscle contraction). Mechanisms of movement on cellular and subcellular levels. Cellular membrane and nuclear skeleton.

6. Intracellular compartments and transport. Membrane organelles (endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, peroxisomes, mitochondrias). Protein sorting – mechanisms of transport of proteins into organelles. Vesicular transport. Secretory and endocytic pathways.

7. Memory system of cell. Genetic and epigenetic information. Structure of human genome. Cytoplasmic inheritance. Epigenetics and its mechanisms.

8. Gene expression. Transcription. Posttranscriptional modifications. Translation. Biogenesis of ribosomes. Cotranslational and posttranslational modification of polypeptides. Genetic code and its characteristics.

9. Regulation of gene expression. Overview: steps of eukaryotic gene regulation. Promotor and iniciation of transcription. Epigenetic regulatory function. MicroRNA and RNA interference. Comparison of prokaryotic and eukaryotic gene regulation. Operon theory.

10. Cell divison. Cell cycle and its regulation. Phases of cell cycle. Positive and negative regulation of cell cycle. Checkpoints and cell cycle regulatory proteins (cyclins, Cdk-kinases, Cdk inhibitors, Rb protein, p53 etc.).

11. DNA replication. Mechanism of replication. Leading and lagging strands. Okazaki fragments. DNA replication fork. Replication enzymes. Primers for DNA synthesis. DNA proofreading and repair. DNA amplification: DNA cloning, polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

12. Mitosis. Phases of mitosis. Mechanisms of mitotic spindle assembly and function. Cytokinesis (plant and animal cells). Meiosis. Phases of meiosis. Meiotic nondisjunction.

13. Cellular stress. Cellular stress responses: cell survival and cell death. Reversible and irrevesible cell injury. Adaptation. Cellular hypertrophy and hyperplasia, atrophy, metaplasia, dysplasia. Cellular aging.

14. Cell death. Apoptosis – programmed cell death. Mechanism of apoptosis and cellular morphological changes during apoptosis. Necrosis. Causes of necrosis. Microscopic nuclear and cytoplasmic changes in necrotic cells

15. General principles of cell communication. Signal molecules. Cell-surface and intracellular signal receptors. G-protein-linked receptors. Enzyme-linked receptors. Signal-transduction proteins. Signal-transduction pathways.

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Syllabus of Practicals on Biology
Topics: 2nd semester - BIOLOGY

1. Introduction into optical microscopy
Basic composition of an optical microscope; Magnification and resolving power; Estimation of real dimensions of objects; Fluorescent microscopy

2. Prokaryotic cells
Basic functional organization of prokaryotic cells; Basic classification of bacteria (pathogens); Bacterial cell wall; Gram reaction; Bacteria and cyanobacteria, examples, observation

3. Eukaryotic cells
Basic functional organization of eukaryotic cells (focus on animal and plant cells); Comparison of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

4. Comparing the structure of plant and animal cells
Observation of permanent preparations of various human cells and tissues; Native preparations of plant cells; Plant tissues – parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma; Comparative analysis of plant and animal cells; Cell wall; Comparative analysis of plant and prokaryotic cell walls.

5. Ultrastructure of eukaryotic cells
Seminar – electron microscopy and resolving ultrastructure of eukaryotic cells. Basic membrane structures (nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes, peroxisomes, vesicles, mitochondria, chloroplasts) and non-membrane structures (ribosomes, nucleolus, cell wall) including cytoskeleton (microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments); Vesicle transport; Molecular motors

6. Cell cycle and mitosis
Cell cycle (G1, S, G2, M), DNA replication, and somatic cell division; Mitosis and its phases; Mitotic spindle structure; Mitotic index; Chromatin structure; Cells in different mitotic phases – slides.

7. Meiosis
Production of gametes – meiosis and gametogenesis; Both meiotic divisions (I and II) with focus on the first division; First meiotic prophase (leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene, diakinesis; Recombination; Comparison of meiosis and mitosis; Cells in different phases of meiotic division - slides

8. Cytogenetics
Chromosomes – structure and classification; human karyotype, banding techniques; Numerical chromosomal aberrations (polyploidy, aneuploidies, syndromes) and structural chromosomal aberrations (deletion, duplication, inversion, translocations, fusions, Robertsonian translocation …) and examples human syndromes; Main sources of these aberrations; Nondisjunction; Evaluation of human karyotypes